Folks,
While I was doing the research for the Gunderson Book, I listened to a
conference commemorating the 150th anniversary of the ten Handcart Companies
which crossed the plains during the 1850's . Pres. Boyd K. Packer gave the
keynote talk which quoted from an article on the 7th handcart company. This
article was written in Danish by C. C. A. Christensen and published in the late
1890 time frame. The article was translated into English during the 1980's and
published is the Nebraska History Magazine.The article speaks of a young
Norwegian woman who was crossing the plains in this Company with her blind
mother. I knew instantly that he was speaking of Caroline Johnsen and her
Mother Elizabeth.
On the following Monday morning, I called Pres. Packer's office to ask how
I could get a copy of the article and his secretary agreed to send Pres. Packers
own copy of the C. C. A. Christensen's article for our use.
David R. Gunderson
Handcart
Crossing by CCA Christensen
By Handcart to Utah:
The
Account of C. C. A. Christensen
Nebraska History Vol. 66, Number 4,
Winter 1985
Translated from Danish by Richard L. Jensen
INTRODUCTIO
Between
1856 and 1860 approximately 3,000 Latter-day Saints made the overland journey
from Iowa City, Iowa, to Salt Lake City, Utah, carrying their provisions and
belongings in handcarts. This novel mode of travel was an attempt to help
emigrants with limited resources gather to Utah at a time
when. their church and
its Perpetual Emigrating Fund had
incurred heavy
indebtedness for teams and wagons in earlier years. Despite the tragedy of two
Mormon handcart companies caught in the snow in late 1856, Brigham Young encouraged
the continuation of the handcart scheme, which was quite effective under favorable circumstances. By 1861
another approach, using mostly teams and
wagons from Utah. proved more satisfactory, and a colorful chapter in American
pioneer transportation came to an end.
One of those who
pulled a handcart in 1857 was Carl Christian Anton Christensen (1831-1912), a
Danish immigrant. Christensen's reminiscences of the trek, much like his well
known paintings of Mormon history, incorporate charmingly detailed vignettes
into the telling of the broader story.1 Thus Christensen shares with
the reader a feeling for the nature of the human experience of crossing plains
and mountains with very limited resources. There are not more than a half dozen
detailed accounts by participants of traveling by handcart, so Christensen's,
published here in English translation for the first time, is significant. 2
Born in Copenhagen,
Christensen was apprenticed to a decorative painter and was simultaneously
studying at the. Royal Academy of Art when at the age of 18 in 1850, he was
converted to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
CCA Christensen
335
Eager to share his
new-found faith with others, he was called in 1853 to serve as a proselytizing
missionary, first in Denmark and later that year in Norway.
Among many young Danish converts also
called to be missionaries were brothers Carl Christian Nikolai Dorius and Johan
Frederik Ferdinand Dorius. They and Christensen became lifelong friends. In
1857 they were released from missionary labors and given permission to
emigrate to Utah-the fulfillment of a fond dream for most European Latter-day
Saints in the 19th century. They emigrated with a large company of
Scandinavian Latter-day Saints, including three
Norwegian girls whom the
friends planned to marry in Salt; Lake City. Christensen's narrative begins
with their departure from Norway in March 1857. From Liverpool, England, they.
sailed for the United States April 25, 1857, aboard the American ship Westmnoreland.
The present account is
translated from writings of C. C. A.
Christensen published
in the Salt Lake City Bikuben (The Beehive), a Latter-day Saint Danish-Norwegian
newspaper. I have attempted to amalgamate several separate accounts into one,
because each contained useful information. In order to avoid too severely
fragmenting the narrative, I have retained a few overlapping details. In some
cases I have divided long sentences and
paragraphs for greater ease in reading. 3
THE REMINISCENCE
In the spring of 1857
C. C. N. Dorius and his brother Ferdinand. . . were released from their
missions with permission to emigrate. C. C. A. [Christensen] was given the same
privilege and [C.] Dorius and the last-mentioned unmarked at Kristiania [now Oslo]
directly for Hull [England], while F. Dorius and the emigrants left for
Copenhagen. The current of our lives had now again merged, and now it took an
entirely new direction. .
Having reached
Liverpool, we were able to see and talk with the renowned Apostle Orson Pratt
for the first time. 4
He received us with great
kindness; but with the dignity of his manner, the veneration his sermons and
pamphlets had in
stilled in us
increased even further when we entered his actual
336 Nebraska History
presence. We attended
a meeting at which he spoke on the subject "The Patriarch Jacob blesses
his two grandsons, Ephraim and Manasseh" and illustrated his remarks"
by laying his hands upon our heads as the two young men, with himself as the
patriarch. The feeling that thrilled both of us on this occasion was almost
one of mixed joy and pride, and although we understood only a very little
English, it still seems to me that at that time we caught the gist of the
Apostle's remarks !very well. . . t
When
we had finally come on board the ship
Westmoreland which was to take us across the Atlantic
Ocean, we and other
brethren were counseled to marry before we left Liverpool Harbor. 5 All three of us
had with us our chosen maidens, intending
to enter into matrimony at the conclusion of the journey rather than at its
beginning, but we ! found absolutely no reason to object, and therefore
all three [couples] were married that very hour by Elder John Kay, who
was at that time on a
mission in England. C. Dorius's bride, was Ellen G. Rolfsen from Risør. [C. C.
A. Christensen's bride .
was Elise Rosalie Scheel of
Fredrikshald.]6 .
The voyage across the
ocean, which took about five weeks, I proceeded without any unusual occurrences, and we
landed at : Philadelphia on Pentecost, Sunday May 31, 1857]. Our
first view of the lovely landscape along the Delaware inspired us greatly.
[Christensen must have
been inspired to an extent before
arriving in America.
He composed the following poem while aboard the Westmoreland at sea. In
the original Danish it has a marching rhythm.]
HANDCART
SONG FROM 1857
Come, brethren, let us all gladly
Go together to Salt Lake City,
And if we get tired, don't be faint-hearted; Spit in
your fist, and that's all there is to it.
We’re going to our beloved home,
Always forward. Dulidulidu. 7
And if it seems a little hard, stilI we can take it.
The handcart does feel strange and new,
It is true, from one view;
But every fellow in some way
Will take hold better every day
Till in the end it goes right neatly,
Doesn't it? Dulidulidu.
And even if it seems a little hard, we can take it.
So it goes, up and down,
More and more, for several weeks,
Till we get up on the mountain.
At its top we will stop.
There Salt Lake Valley we will see
And
a little snow-dulidulidu. .
The last tug was a little hard, but we could take it.
Then we go merrily down again; Come, my follower and
friend!
Our trip is now almost at an end.
We are free as a bee.
. Now we quickly hurry
on
Toward our joyful home-dulidulidu
And even if it was a little hard,
We could take it.
The
journey then continued by rail to Iowa City, which was the westernmost point
the iron horse had reached, and there we
were to begin our honeymoon trip with handcarts. .
At
the campground8 we encountered our first trials, in that we had to
give up books which were bound and had been kept carefully for a long time,
particularly our “Skandinaviske Stjerner” ["Scandinavian Stars"]9
We were only allowed to take with us fifteen pounds in weight for each person
who was to travel with the handcarts, and that included our tinware for eating,
bedding, and any clothing we did not wish to carry ourselves. Thus I remember
that I sold my best trousers to a passing ox driver for twenty-five cents, and
others had to leave valuable articles behind at the campground without any compensation.
Books were left there in large numbers, and their loss has been felt afterwards
with sorrow by others as well as myself.
We
were given a returning missionary by the name of
[James P.] Park, a
native of Scotland, as captain of the handcart company. The less said about
this unfortunate choice of a
338 Nebraska History
leader for such a
people as us, the better for him. We suffered greatly the first two or three
hundred miles, traveling through the state of Iowa until we reached the
Missouri River. The hot season of the year, frequent rain showers, almost'
bottomless roads, exertion and diet to which we were unaccustomed, and the
unreasonable, inconsiderate course of action pursued by our leader [Park],
brought about much sickness and many deaths among us.10 But through all these trials. the brothers Dorius and
I were, as before, always one another's inseparable, faithful helpers. Each of
us had a little part of the company to help organize. Then as afterwards, Carl
Dorius was the Samaritan among the sick; the encouraging, helpful friend and
brother to the despondent and the exhausted. That was no less true of his young
wife, and I must say the same of the other newly-married wives and of F. Dorius.
After
we were reorganized in Florence [Nebraska], and were given our well-known
Danish brother Christian Christiansen as our leader, things went much better.11 The very weakest persons were left behind; we took a
number with us who were half exhausted. He
[Christiansen] began with very short daily travel and walked the entire way
himself in order to better be near at hand and to be able to assess the strength
of the people, rather than riding horseback like other captains. His gentle,
fatherly treatment will never be forgotten by those whom he led across the
plains and the mountains in 1857.
Our
train consisted of between thirty and forty handcarts. Each of these had an
average of five persons and was loaded with what little bedding, tin eating
ware, and other equipment was allowed12 . . . . In addition to that, we were to have a couple of
hundred pounds of provisions in each handcart. Moreover, it was usually
necessary for small children to ride in the handcart which the father, mother,
and older brothers and sisters of the family pulled.
One of the people we had was a blind
sister from Norway, who was about sixty years old, and she walked the whole
way. But she was always cheerful, and as she pushed the handcart her young
daughter was helping to pull we could often hear her merry laughter when she
unexpectedly found herself wading through one or another of the many streams of
water which were found along our way. "Now, Mother, we are about to cross
some water ,"we could her
daughter warning her, “Is it deep?" or "How
deep is it?" we heard her reply from the blind woman; and when the
explanation was satisfactory, she walked cheerfully out into the water.
One
of the most difficult streams that we had to ford was Loup Fork, a tributary of
the Platte River. At the time we crossed, it was very wide, and besides that
the bottom was loose sand, which was constantly shifting. The sick and the
blind woman were allowed to ride in one of our freight wagons, for we had three
wagons drawn by mules, which carried our tents and cookware, and in extreme
emergencies one or more of those who were sick or fatigued were allowed to
ride. But such a ride was an object of dread for most, for to be driven over
rocky and uneven roads, and with only the tents under oneself, was for sick
people usually only a means of increasing their suffering, and in some cases
of hastening their death.
At
the river mentioned above, Loup Fork, several interesting and almost amusing
scenes also took place.
A
large Indian encampment13 was located at that time right at the
fording place, and several of the young girls were ferried across by sitting
behind a half-naked Indian on horseback, having to hold on to him around the
waist in order not to fall off. Those of the emigrants who dared to wade had to
hold on to each other in order not to be carried downstream in the strong
current, and now and then the handcart also lost its footing and threatened to
leave the company, at which time extra resources for rescue had to be utilized.
But all went well, and not a thing was lost, nor was anyone hurt.
Early
in the morning, generally, the children who could walk-some even under the age
of four-were sent ahead, accompanied by their sisters, partly to avoid the
dust and partly to walk as far as possible before the burning sun and exhaustion
would make it necessary to put them. in the handcart.
For
me it is beyond all doubt that the angels of the Lord were with us, though they
were unseen, for we were walking defenseless in a long, spread-out row, in what
was then the land of wild Indians, and many times we were among great herds of
buffalo that could have totally annihilated us if they had been startled or for
one reason or another had been led in the same direction we were traveling. But
they seemed to be
340 Nebraska
History
held at a suitable
distance the whole time, although they were often only a gunshot away.
I
remember a certain sister who came up one morning when the tents were being
packed up, with something in her apron. Upon inspection it proved to be a
little person who had come to the world the previous evening. The mother had
walked with her handcart all day the previous day, and she thought she would
also walk as far that day as she could, but she was prevented from doing that
and rode for a few days. Both the mother and the child are still alive and
living in Monroe, Sevier County, Utah.
We
also had "the blind and the lame, the woman with child and her that travaileth with child together. . . ,14 all represented
in our traveling company, for we had a girl who had a wooden leg. And oddly
enough, these persons made it all the way to their destination, while many
younger persons marked our path with their graves, without as much as a
nameboard, except where there happened to be a bleached buffalo skull. Yet the
mood was, overall, cheerful and jovial, and very seldom were complaints or
displeasure heard from anyone, even when sickness or death had invaded the
family.
We
were only poorly supplied with provisions when we left Florence and had a
thousand miles of wilderness to cover before we could expect any more. The
little smoked pork, dried beef, and sugar, coffee, salt, and other seasoning
with which we were furnished lasted only about three weeks in most cases, and
after that there was naturally flour, flour, flour, and only flour to eat. With
this .they baked bread, cooked porridge, gruel, soup, coffee, pancakes, and
several other nice dishes, but still it was just flour, flour, and flour; and
at one point the flour was scarce, too. 15 We only shot
one buffalo, and this happened almost like a miracle, for it had lagged behind
the rest of the herd. We dared not attack the great herd under our
circumstances at that time.
Our
supplies were intended to be as few as possible, for the weight of the
provisions had to be considered, and the hard daily toil increased our
appetite, rather than decreasing it, except in cases of illness. Therefore, as
it said in one of our songs of encouragement from those days:
Surely,
it was hard. and often we got very tired/
But
the carts, with our appetite,/
Soon
became light./
And
yes, the road was long,/
But
there was merry joking, jests, and song/
When
we made camp.
CCA
Christensen
341
.
But the Camp in the evening was not an
absolute resting place for the tired pilgrims, for then it was a matter of
preparing a meal from the sparse provisions that we had brought with us… We also baked our bread in kettles we had
brought along.16 This
was women’s work and sometimes took till past midnight, for each had to wait
for the other to use the dutch oven. The
men fetched water and gathered fuel; where firewood could be found. Otherwise
the women and
children helped gather
dried “Ko-kasser”17 as we call them in Danish, since on the great
plains along the Platt River there was enough of that kind, from the abundant
buffalo herds which existed there at that time.
After that the men had to do guard duty for four or five hours every
fourth day and then begin the hike anew, after breakfast was prepared and
consumed.
One nice trait characterized these people,
both young and old, namely that their prayers and thanksgivings were held
regularly every morning and evening. The train started moving at about 6:30.
The vanguard of the procession consisted of the few cows which some of those
with more means had bought from farmers along the way. The small boys drove
them as far ahead of the company as was possible with tolerable safety, for you
must remember that we were in the land of the Indians, and one could not always
depend upon them for his life. 18 Besides that, we had the great herds of wild buffalo
around us for many days, and if they had been alarmed and charged, that would
have been the end for us, us: just as we could have been swept away by a
tornado But the Lord held his hand
over our defenseless emigrant company, and we were not molested by either wild
people or wild animals.
One of the most important questions every
morning, which we usually asked our leader -we called him captain- was: “How
far is it to water today?" For he had a book which gave the distance and other
information about the rout, particularly with regard to water and grass for
the emigrants’ draft animals.19 Only one
single night did our captain make a mistake with the directions, and we found
it necessary to stop when darkness fell without water. Then some of the
brethren had to go back several miles to get water for their crying little
ones. But as soon as daybreak came we broke camp and found water a few miles
further along our way and soon forgot the privation of that night.
Although it was a
trial and involved many hardships, there were still also now and then both
interesting and happy scenes as well as comical scenes on the way. Our costumes
would look fine at one of out so-called “Hard Times Balls." Our hats, or
what might once have been called hats, assumed the most grotesque shapes,
seeing that the sun, wind, and rain had the superior force. The ladies' skirts
and the men's trousers hung in irregular trimmings, and the foot coverings
proportional to the rest, with or without bottoms. Our faces were gray from the
dust, which sometimes prevented us from seeing the vanguard; our noses with the
skin hanging in patches, especially on those who had as much nose as I have;
and almost every lower lip covered with a piece of cloth or paper because of
its chapped condition, which made it difficult to speak and particularly to
smile or laugh.
Bedding was often
altered to become everyday clothing, and a gentleman with trousers sewn from
bed ticking was no curiosity in those days.. Nor were the ladies so particular
about whether their skirts could hide their poor footwear, if indeed they were
well enough off to own a pair of shoes, for there were many who had none; but
the Scandinavians managed well with wooden shoes in those days.
A very old man, who
had completely lost his sense of smell, came into camp one day, after the rest
of us had things somewhat in order, with a skunk which he counted on cooking
for soup. This almost made the rest of us leave. He had killed it with his cane
and knew nothing about its peculiar means of defense.
We had with us a
tailor who was getting along in years, but who did not therefore think any the
less of his own charm but
wanted to try his luck
with one of our Norwegian sisters. There were two who pleased him, but the one
was married, and she let him continue with his mistake for some time, to the
amusement of those of us who were in on the matter.
At the same time we
were traveling as peaceful emigrants to Utah, a considerable military force was
also on the way to Utah. But providentially they never came near us, in that
they marched along the other side of the Platte River, where we
could see them, and
their weapons shone in the sun. They were sent out by the government to
suppress a supposed rebellion which did not exist at all in Utah.20
As they
amounted to several
thousand men, large trains of provisions and fat stock were also sent out for
their use, and most of these traveled on the same side of the river as we did.
But we had no further inconvenience from them other than the dust they raised.
One morning after we had been without any sort of meat for several weeks, we
passed a large, fat ox, which they had left behind because one of their heavily
loaded wagons had run over one of its feet and crushed it.
As
we stood looking at the poor animal, the leader of the provision train to which
it belonged came back, and in a" coarse yet half-friendly tone he said,
"You people can have that ox; I suppose you might need a little
meat.” Again we saw in this instance,
the Lord's care for us. We got the ox butchered and divided the meat among
ourselves, but that was.
not so easily done,
for we did not even have a decent ax in the, whole company, for almost everything that was heavy had to be left at
the campground at Iowa City.
Since
we had a butcher with us, the art of supplying us with fresh meat was turned
over to him, but unfortunately he was accustomed to hitting cattle on the
forehead. The ax he had brought was, like everything else, of the lightest
kind, and the poor animal merely shook its head at his blows. Then came a
mighty hunter. In all probability he had belonged to the militia in the town
from which he came, and so he shot it through the nose. But finally another,
luckier Ninuod came
and felled the animal
with his shot and put an end to its suffering.
There
lay [at the campground near Iowa City] heaps of
handsomely
bound books, good warm clothes, and much else of value, of which we deeply felt
the loss wnen we reached Utah, But greatest of all was the loss of many dear
relatives and friends, who died along the way, in a sense as voluntary martyrs
for their faith in the gathering to this land. 21
Perhaps many would have suffered an even worse fate if
President Brigham Young had, not established provision stations where flour
could be obtained, and the first of these stations was about 400 miles east of Salt Lake City.22 Afterwards we were met by wagons with flour and fruit, which
benefited us greatly, but particularly since these wagons picked up the weakest
and sickest among us and thus lightening considerably the responsibility for
the rest of us.
None
but those who have experienced such a trial of patience, faith, and endurance
can form an idea of what it meant to pull a handcart, which frequently even
threatened to collapse because of the extreme heat and lack of humidity, which
could cause the [wood of the] cart to split and thus deprive them of the last
means they possessed to bring with them their absolute necessities.
Along
the way lay the skeletons of worn-out oxen, but these heroes and heroines
endured. . . . With their lips half eaten up by saleratus dust,23
and clothed in rags, with almost bottomless shoes on. their feet, yet they
greeted with songs of delight the rising sun which let them see Salt Lake City
for the first time.
What
changes have taken place since that time In less than one week our emigrants
are now brought here from the Atlantic coast, where they disembark after a few
days pleasant ocean voyage by steamship, while we in those days were tumbled
about by sailing ships for several weeks, uncertain of the time when we could
expect to see the promised land. And then the journey by land over the great,
empty plains and high mountains on foot, poorly supplied with food and
clothing-in short, subjected to almost every deprivation that people could bear
and endure, and that for all of thirteen weeks.24
.
One
can perhaps form a vague idea of our feelings when we finally stopped here in
this city and were met by kind brothers and sisters, many of whom brought
cakes, milk, and other things that for us were so much needed.
It
was a Sunday, and with the Danish flag on the lead handcart we marched to our
last resting place as far as this journey was concerned. . . . . . . . . A few days
later; all these pilgrims had disappeared from their last camping place, having
found shelter and hospitality among the Saints in Zion.
Since
that time I have traveled back and forth several times across these mountains
and plains, but never have I seen people more patient and devoted to God than
those with whom I faced these trying circumstances in the year 1857.
346
Nebraska History
NOTES
1. Jane Dillenberger, "Mormonism
and American Religious Art,” Sunstone 3 (May-June 1978),pp. 13-17.
Richard L. Jensen and Richard G. Oman, C. C. A. Christensen (1831-1912):
Mormon Immigrant Artist (Salt Lake City: The Church of Jesus Christ of
Latter-day Saints, 1984). Carl Carmer, “A Panorama of Mormon Lire,” Art in
America (May-June 1970), pp.52-65.
2. Other accounts of Mormons
traveling by handcart in the 1850s are
published in LeRoy R. Hafen and Ann W. Hafen, Handcarts
to Zion (Glendale, California: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1960; reprint,
1981). Additional information is found in Leonard J. Arrington and Rebecca
Cornwall, Rescue of the 1856 Handcart Companies (Provo, Utah: Brigham Young
University Press,
1981).
3.
This amalgamated account is taken from the following sources:
C.
C. A. Christensen, “.C. C. N. Dorius,” Salt Lake City Bikuben, March
22,
1894.
Christensen, “Haandkarre-Sang fra 1857” [“Handcart Song
from 1857"],
Salt
Lake City Bikuben, September 23, 1896.
Christensen, “Erindringer fra 1857" ["Memories
of 1857"], Salt Lake City
Bikuben,
October 1,8, 1903.
Christensen, "Over Praerierne" [“Across the
Prairies”], Salt
Lake City
Bikuben, September
8, 1910. .
Christensen correspondence, Salt Lake City Bikuben, September
15, 1904.
Christensen, “Et Mindeblad til afdode Soster Laura A.
Larsen" ["A Page
in Memory of Deceased Sister Laura A. Larsen"], Salt
Lake City Bikuben,
February 20, 1902.
4. Orson Pratt was then
presiding over Latter-day Saint affairs in Europe and was concurrently
president of the Church's British Mission. At least four of Pratt's popular
religious tracts had been published in Danish translation by the time
Christensen and his friends visited Liverpool, and several of his sermons had
appeared in the Scandinavian Mission periodical.
5. The Westmoreland left
Liverpool April 25, 1857, with 544 Mormon passengers on board. Conway B. Sonne,
Saints on the Seas: A Maritime History of Mormon Migration 1830-1890 (Salt
Lake City: -University of Utah Press, 1983), p. 152.
6. Risor and Fredrikshald, on
opposite shores of Oslofjord, were among the first towns in Norway proselytized
by Latter-day Saints. Fredrikshald has since been renamed Halden.
7.
“Dulidulidu" was apparently intended to suggest the trill of a fife.
8. The staging
area for the handcart trek was on the banks of Clear Creek, three miles west of
Iowa City, in present-day Coralville, Iowa. See Stanley B. Kimball, Discovering Mormon Trails: New York to California
1831-1868
(Salt Lake City: Deseret Book, 1979), p. 36. .
9. Skandinaviens
Stjerne [The Star of Scandinavia] was the Latter-day
Saint
mission periodical for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden.
10. Christensen explains elsewhere that Park
"could not understand our language, nor have any 'particular sympathy for
those who were tired, sick, or dissatisfied as a result of the new and
unaccustomed circumstances’
- C. C. A. Christensen,
“Erindringer fra 1857” ['Memories of 1857"], Salt Lake City Bikuben, October
1, 1903.
11.The replacement of Christiansen for Park
at Florence was a rather unusual occurrence among a people known for their
submission to officially appointed leadership. It must have been the result of
complaints by the Scandinavians to Latter-day Saint authorities at Florence,
although the process is not well documented. Christiansen had emigrated to Utah
earlier had presided over Scandinavian Latter-day Saints in the Midwest in
1856-1857 and was preparing to return to Utah with an ox-team party when he was
called upon to assist the handcart emigrants.
12. A. Milton Musser, who assisted with
Church emigration arrangements at Florence, reported that the Scandinavian
company left there with 68 handcarts and about 330 persons. Musser to William
Appleby, July 16, 1957, The Latter-day Saints' Millennial Star, Vol. 19,
p. 620. Thus Christensen's estimate of the number of persons per handcart was
accurate, while his recollection of the number of persons and handcarts in the
company apparently was not.
13. Undoubtedly a Pawnee village. During
1857 the Pawnee ceded other lands to the United States and moved several
villages to this vicinity.
14. Jeremiah 31:8.
15. Christensen wrote elsewhere, "Our
diet was . . . very monotonous, but
our appetite gave it seasoning, so that we ate often
and much, and yet were .always hungry.” Christensen, “C. C. N. Dorius,” Salt
Lake City Bikuben,
March 22, 1894. .
16. They baked their bread "without
yeast or baking powder”. Christensen, "Et Mindeblad til Afdode Soster
Laura A. Larsen" [“A Page in Memory of Deceased Sister Laura A.
Larsen"], Salt Lake City Bikuben, February 20, 1902.
17. Buffalo or cow chips are the
corresponding American terms, denoting dried animal dung used as fuel. In
Christensen's painting on the cover of this issue of Nebraska History, a
woman in the foreground is gathering buffalo chips.
18. In an insightful. examination
of emigrant-Indian relations along the westward trails, John D. Unruh, Jr.,
indicates that the threat posed to travelers by Indians was often grossly
exaggerated, but that depredations were more common by the mid-1850s than
before. He finds that relatively few emigrants were killed by Indians east of
South Pass. Unruh, The Plains Across: The Overland Emigrants and the
Trans-Mississippi West, 1840-60 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,
1979), pp. 156-200.
19. Probably William
Clayton, The Latter-day Saints' Emigrants' Guide (St. Louis: Republican
Steam Power Press-Chambers & Knapp, 1848). See also William Clayton, The
Latter-day Saints' Emigrants' Guide, ed. Stanley B. Kimball (Gerald,
Missouri: Patrice Press, 1983). .
20. In response to
complaints from federally appointed officials and a
former mail contractor, the
administration of James Buchanan sent troops to Utah under General Albert
Sidney Johnston-as it was claimed-to restore federal authority over the
territory. For a discussion of the entire episode, see Norman F.
Furniss, The Mormon Conflict, 1850-1859 (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1960).
21.
James Jensen, another Danish immigrant in the same handcart company, stated
that one out of every ten in the group died enroute. J. M. Tanner, Biographical
Sketch. of James Jensen (Salt Lake City, 1911), p. 40.
22. The aid station mentioned was at Deer Creek, present-day
Glenrock,
Wyoming.
23. Aerated sodium bicarbonate. Perhaps Christensen was also
remembering alkali dust.
24.
Before the adoption of steam transportation, Latter-day Saint immigrants from
Europe took from three to five months to reach Utah. In 1869 the first company
of Latter-day Saint immigrants to use both steamship and the newly completed
transcontinental railroad traveled from Liverpool to Ogden, Utah in 24 days. By
1877 the entire trip took as little as 17 days. See Richard L. Jensen, "Steaming
Through: Arrangements for Mormon Emigration from Europe, 1869-1887”, Journal
of Mormon History (1982):21
A list of the members of the 7th Handcart Co follows:
(The number shown in parentheses
next to each name is the age of the pioneer at the time of the journey.)
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